Tuesday, 09-Aug-2022 01:48:37 GMT
Ecosystems of Marshall Islands
Contents:
MIXED FOREST COMMUNITY
Scaevola-Guettarda, "kõnnat"-"utilomar" community
Pisonia grandis, "kañal" forest
Tournefortia argentea, "kiden" forest
Pisonia-Tournefortia "kañal"-"kiden" community
Suriana "kalañe" society
Neisosperma oppositifolia "kõjbar" forest
Pandanus "bõb" forest
Scaevola servicea "kõnnat" forest
Sida fallax "kio" scrub or scrub forest
Pemphis acidula "kõñe" scrub or scrub forest
Cordia subcordata, "kõno" community
Barringtonia asiatica, "wõp" forest
Dodonea viscosa "kamen" stands
Sandy beach, high tide area
Coconut "ni" groves and plantations
Breadfruit "mã" forest and community
Lepturus, "ujoij" grasslands and savannahs
Urban forests and environments
Homesteads
FRESHWATER AND BRACKISH
Inland lakes
Tree holes and other small freshwater reservoirs
Taro, "iaraj" pits
Large artificial reservoirs
Bruguiera "joñ" community and basins
Sonneratia "bulabol" community
MARINE
Seagrass community and meadows
Supratidal and intertidal
Sandy areas of the intertidal and subtidal zones
Coral reefs
Reef holes, artificially quarried and bombed
Sea surface; lagoon water column, open water
Deep water
REFERENCES
None of ecosystems listed below will be identical in any two locations. Furthermore, since humans have had such a strong impact on local biota of the Marshalls, it is not really possible to separate natural ecosystems from artificial ones, although extreme examples of both should be self-evident. And in the Marshall Islands, it is not even possible to have a sharp demarcation between terrestrial and marine ecosystems.
The following list outlines the major ecosystems of the Marshall Islands. Of course, any division and figure is by nature arbitratry and should not be taken as the final word on the subject.
Ecosystem: MIXED FOREST COMMUNITY
Location: most uncultivated islands
Importance: heterogeneous mixture of many species;
Neisosperma does not commonly occur; one of richest zones; pandanus trees source of food and nesting sites for reef heron, brown noddy; homefor land snails, possibly including endemics; forage grounds for birds and skinks
Status: reduced from original range by human clearing
Threats: land clearing; development; invasive exotics
Ecosystem: Scaevola-Guettarda, "kõnnat"-"utilomar" community
Location: location; most islands, along beaches
Importance: holds beach together; halophytic properties of major species helps protect inland species
Threats: land clearing; invasive exotics
Ecosystem: Pisonia grandis, "kañal" forest
Location: now often found only on "mo" islands
Importance: favorite roost of gregarious seabirds; birds and leaves produce rich humus; only place where jemo soil is produced; one of the most characteristic and originally widespread coral island forests
Status: first forest to be cleared when planting coconuts
Threats: threats; land clearing; development
Ecosystem: Tournefortia argentea, "kiden" forest
Location: all atolls
Importance: one of the most successful colonists; habitat for nesting seabirds; stabilizes soil so small islands can enlarge and other species can become established
Threats: tends to be invaded by other species
Ecosystem: Pisonia-Tournefortia "kañal"-"kiden" community
Location: most atolls with islands undisturbed by humans
Importance: dense canopy forest; old, natural; roosts and nesting sites for many birds, (fairy terns, noddies); some of the richest soil on atolls
Threats: land clearing, development
Ecosystem: Suriana "kalañe" society
Location: northern atolls and islands only
Importance: binds windblown sand along windward beaches
Threats: use for firewood
Ecosystem: Neisosperma oppositifolia "kõjbar" forest
Location: most atolls with undisturbed islets
Importance: climax forest; may invade and replace mixed broadleaf forests and
Pisonia forests; only pure forests found in Marshalls, although species grows throughout Pacific
Threats: land clearing and development
Ecosystem: Pandanus "bõb" forest
Location: location; northern atolls
Status: source of food and building materials
Threats: uncommon in Marshalls
development
Ecosystem: Scaevola servicea "kõnnat" forest
Location: most atolls, even northern
Importance: early colonizer; stabilizes beach areas; habitat for nesting seabirds (black-footed albatross, red-footed booby, frigatebirds); nesting area and food for green turtle; home to endemic bug
Camphlomma; hiding spot for young black-naped terns before they can fly
Status: potentially threatened
Threats: threats; land clearing, establishment of
Casuarina on beach zones; roof rat
Rattus rattus chewing on stems
Ecosystem: Sida fallax "kio" scrub or scrub forest
Location: Bokak
Importance: low in stature, pure stands, but sometimes with other low herbaceaus plants, nesting site for sea birds
Threats: human activities
Ecosystem: Pemphis acidula "kõñe" scrub or scrub forest
Location: intertidal rocky areas of most atolls
Importance: one of the most extreme halophytes, survives submergence by seawater; inhabits limestone with no soil at all; survives typhoons; no insects in ecosystem; extremely hard wood; aberrant form reported on Likiep and in Arno salt swamps; large specimens, 5 feet in circumference or more; very old (hundred of years), possible use in arbochronology; no undergrowth, not succeeded by any other species; habitat of long-tailed cuckoo
Status: on less inhabited islands, often by inland waterways
Threats: popularly exploited for firewood
Ecosystem: Cordia subcordata, "kõno" community
Location: boulder areas, drier areas
Importance: tangled branches form rugged beach barrier; no ground cover
Threats: shore clearing
Ecosystem: Barringtonia asiatica, "wõp" forest
Location: rare, only a few islands, Lae, Lae; Namu, Namu striking in appearance; trees of enormous diameter; amidst large boulders along rugged beach; natural forests recorded only on Marshalls' atolls
Ecosystem: Dodonea viscosa "kamen" stands
Location: northern atolls
Importance: related to Hawaiian "aalii" which has useful hard wood, unusually large and developed on Bikini
Ecosystem: Sandy beach, high tide area
Location: all atolls
Importance: limited vegetation, just a few grasses and pioneer scrubs; sand bound together with Nostac (nitrogenating blue-green bacteria); nesting site for endangered sea turtles; hunting ground for migratory shore birds beach development
Threats: beach development; as regards green turtles, beach armoring, beach nourishment, beach lighting, beach clearing, people walking on beach, vehicles driving on beach, beach erosion, beach accretion, exotic plants such as
Casuarina, exotic predators, rats - all can reduce the survival rates of eggs and hatchlings
Ecosystem: Coconut "ni" groves and plantations
Location: all inhabited and frequented islands
Importance: agricultural lands; undergrowth often cleared
Threats: imported pests; development
Ecosystem: Breadfruit "mã" forest and community
Location: all cultivated islands
Importance: major source of food for humans and animals; nesting site of endangered Micronesian pigeon
Threats: urbanization; pest insects and agricultural diseases
Ecosystem: Lepturus, "ujoij" grasslands and savannahs
Location: location; Bokak and drier atolls
Importance: importance; nesting site of wedge-tailed shearwater; one of earliest pioneers of bare sand and gravel
Status: stabile if left undisturbed
Threats: any human activity; importation of aggressive rat species
Ecosystem: Urban forests and environments
Location: urban environments; downtown Majuro, Ebeye
Importance: large proportion of native/traditional vegetation; breadfruit, pandanus, other food crops to a minor degree; low natural biodiversity but often high numbers of introduced species; lizards, insects,domestic animals; frequented by some migratory birds;
Status: in constant transition
Threats: further urbanization; invasive exotics
Ecosystem: Homesteads
Location: all inhabited islands
Importance: houses kept clear of vegetation aside from some food plants and ornamentals; domestic animals, lizards, insects; low ; natural biodiversity; no humus on ground; coral gravel brought from beaches stabile under culture and tradition
Threats: further urbanization; invasive exotics
FRESHWATER AND BRACKISH
Ecosystem: Inland lakes
Location: non-mangrove areas, Wotje, Wotje; Lekan, Kwajelein
Importance: stopover for migratory waterfowl; soft mud provided protection during World War II when bombs dropped on Wotje did not explode
Threats: drainage for use of freshwater; pollution; waste oil; pesticides; invasive exotics
Ecosystem: Tree holes and other small freshwater reservoirs
Location: most islands
Importance: indicate colonization patterns and patterns of dispersal of species between atolls; breeding grounds of Micronesian endemic
Aedes and other insects
Status: seasonal
Ecosystem: Taro, "iaraj" pits
Location: inhabited islands
Importance: surrounded by lush vegetation; almost devoid of insects; freshwater snails common, possibly endemics; blood worms, freshwater shrimp
Status: in constant change if maintained
Threats: droughts; land development; invasive exotics
Ecosystem: Large artificial reservoirs
Location: urban areas; Majuro airport area
Importance: stopover for migratory waterfowl
Ecosystem: Bruguiera "joñ" community and basins
Location: wetland depressions without outlets; many atolls with large islands
Importance: likely planted by early inhabitants; provide building material; cannot spread naturally since no outlet to the sea
Status: very stressed or wiped out in urban areas, Majuro; protection of some recommended
Threats: filling of wetlands; urbanization; invasive exotics
Ecosystem: Sonneratia "bulabol" community
Location: only Lib; Airok, Ailinglaplap; Jaluit, Jaluit; Madmid, Namdrik; Birarij, Arno, Nallo, Mili
Importance: likely planted by man; habitat of "kirenbo" fish,
Ophieleotris; timber
Status: protection of some recommended
Threats: filling of wetlands; introduced mosquitofish; other invasive exotics
MARINE
Ecosystem: Seagrass community and meadows
Location: Thalassia hemprichii -Ailinglaplap, Ujelang, other atolls;
Cymodocea rotandata -Majuro;
Halophila minor -Kwajelein
Importance: provides protection against currents in quiet water, sandy shore, nursery grounds for many fishes
Threats: urbanization; pollution; filling with land or trash
Ecosystem: Supratidal and intertidal
Location: all atolls
Importance: feeding grounds for migratory birds; home to many animals which help clean up beach
Threats: pollution; urbanization; seawalls; armorment; potentially lethal physical events - desiccation, osmotic stress, strong waves, thermal stress, high light intensity
Ecosystem: Sandy areas of the intertidal and subtidal zones
Location: all atolls
Importance: feeding grounds for migratory birds; habitat for many food fishes and valuable seashells; forming grounds of many components of atoll land
Threats: pollution; urbanization; armorment; seawalls; dredging
Ecosystem: Coral reefs
Location: all atolls (subdivided in the Marshalls into lagoon reefs - slopes and flats - ocean reefs - slopes and flats - pinnacle reefs, interisland reef flats, urban reefs, reef passes, mid-ocean pinnacles, etc.)
Importance: highest diversity of shallow benthic species in the world is in tropical Indo-Pacific; small outcropping home to endemic three-banded anemonefish; home to most other endemic fishes
Status: stressed near urban areas
Threats: pollution; anchor damage; overfishing; careless collecting; reef walking; careless divers; dredging
Ecosystem: Reef holes, artificially quarried and bombed
Location: urbanized atolls; Enewetak, Mili
Status: abundant fishes; home of banded pipefish; mariculture and fisheries potentials
Threats: pollution; filling; over-exploitation
Ecosystem: Sea surface; lagoon water column, open water
Location: more than 99.99% of surface area of the Marshall Islands
Importance: plankton is extremely important to existence of the earth, more so than any other particular group of fishes or other animals or organisms; more abundant source of food than the most luxuriant forest; bacterial and organic material important many food webs; fisheries of the world bound up with plankton; decapods, euphausids, mysids, amphipods, chaetognaths
Threats: over-exploitation; pollution and biological magnification
Ecosystem: Deep water
Location: below 200 meters
Importance: deep water shrimp and other commercial species; three-quarters of ocean bottom below 3,000 meters but home to less than one percent of life in sea; one of most rigorous and constant environments; "rain" of detrital particles and fecal material from upper levels supports life; biomass declines with depth; faunal diversity is extraordinarily high
Status: debated
Threats: pollution drifting down from above
REFERENCES
Drawings by Nancy Vander Velde
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