Sunday, 12-Jul-2020 06:27:19 GMT

Ecosystems of Marshall Islands

Contents:
  MIXED FOREST COMMUNITY
    Scaevola-Guettarda, "kõnnat"-"utilomar" community
    Pisonia grandis, "kañal" forest
    Tournefortia argentea, "kiden" forest
    Pisonia-Tournefortia "kañal"-"kiden" community
    Suriana "kalañe" society
    Neisosperma oppositifolia "kõjbar" forest
    Pandanus "bõb" forest
    Scaevola servicea "kõnnat" forest
    Sida fallax "kio" scrub or scrub forest
    Pemphis acidula "kõñe" scrub or scrub forest
    Cordia subcordata, "kõno" community
    Barringtonia asiatica, "wõp" forest
    Dodonea viscosa "kamen" stands
    Sandy beach, high tide area
    Coconut "ni" groves and plantations
    Breadfruit "mã" forest and community
    Lepturus, "ujoij" grasslands and savannahs
    Urban forests and environments
  Homesteads
  FRESHWATER AND BRACKISH
    Inland lakes
    Tree holes and other small freshwater reservoirs
    Taro, "iaraj" pits
    Large artificial reservoirs
    Bruguiera "joñ" community and basins
    Sonneratia "bulabol" community
  MARINE
    Seagrass community and meadows
    Supratidal and intertidal
    Sandy areas of the intertidal and subtidal zones
    Coral reefs
    Reef holes, artificially quarried and bombed
    Sea surface; lagoon water column, open water
    Deep water
  REFERENCES

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None of ecosystems listed below will be identical in any two locations. Furthermore, since humans have had such a strong impact on local biota of the Marshalls, it is not really possible to separate natural ecosystems from artificial ones, although extreme examples of both should be self-evident. And in the Marshall Islands, it is not even possible to have a sharp demarcation between terrestrial and marine ecosystems.

The following list outlines the major ecosystems of the Marshall Islands. Of course, any division and figure is by nature arbitratry and should not be taken as the final word on the subject.

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Ecosystem: MIXED FOREST COMMUNITY

Location: most uncultivated islands
Importance: heterogeneous mixture of many species; Neisosperma does not commonly occur; one of richest zones; pandanus trees source of food and nesting sites for reef heron, brown noddy; homefor land snails, possibly including endemics; forage grounds for birds and skinks
Status: reduced from original range by human clearing
Threats: land clearing; development; invasive exotics

Ecosystem: Scaevola-Guettarda, "kõnnat"-"utilomar" community

Location: location; most islands, along beaches
Importance: holds beach together; halophytic properties of major species helps protect inland species
Threats: land clearing; invasive exotics

Ecosystem: Pisonia grandis, "kañal" forest

Location: now often found only on "mo" islands
Importance: favorite roost of gregarious seabirds; birds and leaves produce rich humus; only place where jemo soil is produced; one of the most characteristic and originally widespread coral island forests
Status: first forest to be cleared when planting coconuts
Threats: threats; land clearing; development

Ecosystem: Tournefortia argentea, "kiden" forest

Location: all atolls
Importance: one of the most successful colonists; habitat for nesting seabirds; stabilizes soil so small islands can enlarge and other species can become established
Threats: tends to be invaded by other species

Ecosystem: Pisonia-Tournefortia "kañal"-"kiden" community
Location: most atolls with islands undisturbed by humans
Importance: dense canopy forest; old, natural; roosts and nesting sites for many birds, (fairy terns, noddies); some of the richest soil on atolls
Threats: land clearing, development


Ecosystem: Suriana "kalañe" society

Location: northern atolls and islands only
Importance: binds windblown sand along windward beaches
Threats: use for firewood

Ecosystem: Neisosperma oppositifolia "kõjbar" forest

Location: most atolls with undisturbed islets
Importance: climax forest; may invade and replace mixed broadleaf forests and Pisonia forests; only pure forests found in Marshalls, although species grows throughout Pacific
Threats: land clearing and development

Ecosystem: Pandanus "bõb" forest
Location: location; northern atolls
Status: source of food and building materials
Threats: uncommon in Marshalls
development

Ecosystem: Scaevola servicea "kõnnat" forest

Location: most atolls, even northern
Importance: early colonizer; stabilizes beach areas; habitat for nesting seabirds (black-footed albatross, red-footed booby, frigatebirds); nesting area and food for green turtle; home to endemic bug Camphlomma; hiding spot for young black-naped terns before they can fly
Status: potentially threatened
Threats: threats; land clearing, establishment of Casuarina on beach zones; roof rat Rattus rattus chewing on stems

Ecosystem: Sida fallax "kio" scrub or scrub forest

Location: Bokak
Importance: low in stature, pure stands, but sometimes with other low herbaceaus plants, nesting site for sea birds
Threats: human activities


Ecosystem: Pemphis acidula "kõñe" scrub or scrub forest

Location: intertidal rocky areas of most atolls
Importance: one of the most extreme halophytes, survives submergence by seawater; inhabits limestone with no soil at all; survives typhoons; no insects in ecosystem; extremely hard wood; aberrant form reported on Likiep and in Arno salt swamps; large specimens, 5 feet in circumference or more; very old (hundred of years), possible use in arbochronology; no undergrowth, not succeeded by any other species; habitat of long-tailed cuckoo
Status: on less inhabited islands, often by inland waterways
Threats: popularly exploited for firewood

Ecosystem: Cordia subcordata, "kõno" community

Location: boulder areas, drier areas
Importance: tangled branches form rugged beach barrier; no ground cover
Threats: shore clearing

Ecosystem: Barringtonia asiatica, "wõp" forest

Location: rare, only a few islands, Lae, Lae; Namu, Namu striking in appearance; trees of enormous diameter; amidst large boulders along rugged beach; natural forests recorded only on Marshalls' atolls

Ecosystem: Dodonea viscosa "kamen" stands

Location: northern atolls
Importance: related to Hawaiian "aalii" which has useful hard wood, unusually large and developed on Bikini

Ecosystem: Sandy beach, high tide area
Location: all atolls
Importance: limited vegetation, just a few grasses and pioneer scrubs; sand bound together with Nostac (nitrogenating blue-green bacteria); nesting site for endangered sea turtles; hunting ground for migratory shore birds beach development
Threats: beach development; as regards green turtles, beach armoring, beach nourishment, beach lighting, beach clearing, people walking on beach, vehicles driving on beach, beach erosion, beach accretion, exotic plants such as Casuarina, exotic predators, rats - all can reduce the survival rates of eggs and hatchlings


Ecosystem: Coconut "ni" groves and plantations
Location: all inhabited and frequented islands
Importance: agricultural lands; undergrowth often cleared
Threats: imported pests; development

Ecosystem: Breadfruit "mã" forest and community

Location: all cultivated islands
Importance: major source of food for humans and animals; nesting site of endangered Micronesian pigeon
Threats: urbanization; pest insects and agricultural diseases

Ecosystem: Lepturus, "ujoij" grasslands and savannahs
Location: location; Bokak and drier atolls
Importance: importance; nesting site of wedge-tailed shearwater; one of earliest pioneers of bare sand and gravel
Status: stabile if left undisturbed
Threats: any human activity; importation of aggressive rat species

Ecosystem: Urban forests and environments
Location: urban environments; downtown Majuro, Ebeye
Importance: large proportion of native/traditional vegetation; breadfruit, pandanus, other food crops to a minor degree; low natural biodiversity but often high numbers of introduced species; lizards, insects,domestic animals; frequented by some migratory birds;
Status: in constant transition
Threats: further urbanization; invasive exotics

Ecosystem: Homesteads

Location: all inhabited islands
Importance: houses kept clear of vegetation aside from some food plants and ornamentals; domestic animals, lizards, insects; low ; natural biodiversity; no humus on ground; coral gravel brought from beaches stabile under culture and tradition
Threats: further urbanization; invasive exotics


FRESHWATER AND BRACKISH

Ecosystem: Inland lakes

Location: non-mangrove areas, Wotje, Wotje; Lekan, Kwajelein
Importance: stopover for migratory waterfowl; soft mud provided protection during World War II when bombs dropped on Wotje did not explode
Threats: drainage for use of freshwater; pollution; waste oil; pesticides; invasive exotics

Ecosystem: Tree holes and other small freshwater reservoirs

Location: most islands
Importance: indicate colonization patterns and patterns of dispersal of species between atolls; breeding grounds of Micronesian endemic Aedes and other insects
Status: seasonal

Ecosystem: Taro, "iaraj" pits

Location: inhabited islands
Importance: surrounded by lush vegetation; almost devoid of insects; freshwater snails common, possibly endemics; blood worms, freshwater shrimp
Status: in constant change if maintained
Threats: droughts; land development; invasive exotics

Ecosystem: Large artificial reservoirs
Location: urban areas; Majuro airport area
Importance: stopover for migratory waterfowl


Ecosystem: Bruguiera "joñ" community and basins

Location: wetland depressions without outlets; many atolls with large islands
Importance: likely planted by early inhabitants; provide building material; cannot spread naturally since no outlet to the sea
Status: very stressed or wiped out in urban areas, Majuro; protection of some recommended
Threats: filling of wetlands; urbanization; invasive exotics

Ecosystem: Sonneratia "bulabol" community

Location: only Lib; Airok, Ailinglaplap; Jaluit, Jaluit; Madmid, Namdrik; Birarij, Arno, Nallo, Mili
Importance: likely planted by man; habitat of "kirenbo" fish, Ophieleotris; timber
Status: protection of some recommended
Threats: filling of wetlands; introduced mosquitofish; other invasive exotics

MARINE

Ecosystem: Seagrass community and meadows

Location: Thalassia hemprichii -Ailinglaplap, Ujelang, other atolls; Cymodocea rotandata -Majuro; Halophila minor -Kwajelein
Importance: provides protection against currents in quiet water, sandy shore, nursery grounds for many fishes
Threats: urbanization; pollution; filling with land or trash

Ecosystem: Supratidal and intertidal

Location: all atolls
Importance: feeding grounds for migratory birds; home to many animals which help clean up beach
Threats: pollution; urbanization; seawalls; armorment; potentially lethal physical events - desiccation, osmotic stress, strong waves, thermal stress, high light intensity


Ecosystem: Sandy areas of the intertidal and subtidal zones

Location: all atolls
Importance: feeding grounds for migratory birds; habitat for many food fishes and valuable seashells; forming grounds of many components of atoll land
Threats: pollution; urbanization; armorment; seawalls; dredging

Ecosystem: Coral reefs

Location: all atolls (subdivided in the Marshalls into lagoon reefs - slopes and flats - ocean reefs - slopes and flats - pinnacle reefs, interisland reef flats, urban reefs, reef passes, mid-ocean pinnacles, etc.)
Importance: highest diversity of shallow benthic species in the world is in tropical Indo-Pacific; small outcropping home to endemic three-banded anemonefish; home to most other endemic fishes
Status: stressed near urban areas
Threats: pollution; anchor damage; overfishing; careless collecting; reef walking; careless divers; dredging

Ecosystem: Reef holes, artificially quarried and bombed
Location: urbanized atolls; Enewetak, Mili
Status: abundant fishes; home of banded pipefish; mariculture and fisheries potentials
Threats: pollution; filling; over-exploitation

Ecosystem: Sea surface; lagoon water column, open water
Location: more than 99.99% of surface area of the Marshall Islands
Importance: plankton is extremely important to existence of the earth, more so than any other particular group of fishes or other animals or organisms; more abundant source of food than the most luxuriant forest; bacterial and organic material important many food webs; fisheries of the world bound up with plankton; decapods, euphausids, mysids, amphipods, chaetognaths
Threats: over-exploitation; pollution and biological magnification

Ecosystem: Deep water
Location: below 200 meters
Importance: deep water shrimp and other commercial species; three-quarters of ocean bottom below 3,000 meters but home to less than one percent of life in sea; one of most rigorous and constant environments; "rain" of detrital particles and fecal material from upper levels supports life; biomass declines with depth; faunal diversity is extraordinarily high
Status: debated
Threats: pollution drifting down from above



REFERENCES


Drawings by Nancy Vander Velde

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